Nature and Nurture- Trans and LGB Research Update

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BRAIN RESEARCH

Researchers (Gliske 2019) propose some new theories about the cause of gender dysphoria that goes beyond the popular “pink brain/blue brain” narrative that emphasizes cross-sex brain similarities (true in homosexual transexuals, not in autogynephilic transexuals). The term this paper uses for this is “cross-sex brain theory.” The authors point to regions in the brain relating to dissociation from the body and anxiety about the body and the networks between brain regions. This is different from the more common and simplistic view of innate brain sex. Gliske uses the term “multisense.” Below is a summation of the findings:

We hypothesize that in individuals with gender dysphoria, the aspects of chronic distress, gender atypical behavior, and incongruence between perception of gender identity and external primary sex characteristics are all directly related to functional differences in associated brain networks. We evaluated previously published neuroscience data related to these aspects and the associated functional networks, along with other relevant information. We find that the brain networks that give individuals their ownership of body parts, that influence gender typical behavior, and that are involved in chronic distress are different in individuals with and without gender dysphoria, leading to a new theory—that gender dysphoria is a sensory perception condition, an alteration in sense of gender influenced by the reflexive behavioral responses associated with each of these networks. This theory builds upon previous work that supports the relevance of the body ownership network and that questions the relevance of cerebral sexual dimorphism in regards to gender dysphoria. However, our theory uses a hierarchical executive function model to incorporate multiple reflexive factors (body ownership, gender (a)typical behavior, and chronic distress) with the cognitive, reflective process of gender identity…

After considering this hypothesis, we present a new theory of gender dysphoria, consistent with the latest neuroscience data, that stands in contrast to the common opposite brain sex theory and builds upon the work relating body perception with gender dysphoria (Burke et 112  al., 2017b; Manzouri et al., 2017; Manzouri and Savic, 2019). We denote this new theory the multisense theory of gender dysphoria. This new theory focuses on function, including sense of gender and its inputs, rather than male/female dichotomy in anatomical size and shape (the focus of the opposite brain sex theory). For clarity, in this document we use “sense of gender” to refer to the emergent sense arising from the function of multiple networks, and “brain sex” to refer to anatomical characteristics of the brain relative to male/female dichotomy. We also use the term “transgender” throughout this manuscript, though recognize that some references instead use the word transsexual to refer to the same concept. We observe, based on previously published data, that the primary mechanism behind the experience of gender dysphoria appears not to be that the anatomical brain sex is opposite to gender assigned at birth. Instead, we propose that systemic changes in functional networks, specifically the distress, social behavioral and body-ownership networks, result in the incongruence between sense of gender and gender assigned at birth.

Newsweek published an article that contains critiques of the paper’s positions and Gliske’s suggestion that there may be other alternatives to help GD beyond medical treatment. In current gender discourse, there tends to be strong pushback if any person suggests it would be a better outcome to avoid genital surgery, mastectomy, and the known negative side-effects of taking high doses of cross-sex hormones:

Simona Giordano, an expert in gender identity and Reader in Bioethics at The University of Manchester Law School, who did not work on the study, told Newsweek she was surprised Gliskesuggested altering neural structures and networks is less invasive than providing gender-affirming treatment.

Giordano also argued Gliske's suggestions for treatment would "get rid of gender incongruence," and expressed concern this amounts to a form of "medical conversion." 

While understanding the mechanisms of sexual orientation and gender identification is a "legitimate scientific effort," Giordano argued, she said "science that singles out gender minorities as subjects of study might inadvertently suggest that there is an underlying medical problem."

"Should we use these hypothetical therapies, we would no longer have gender dysphoria sufferers because we would no longer have transgender people," she said.  

Giordano highlighted that various international organizations, such as UNESCO, and the Council of Europe, have called de-pathologization of gender diversity. Last year, the World Health Organisationrenamed gender identity disorder as gender incongruence to "reflect the international consensus that gender diversity is not a disorder or illness," she said.

Professor Catherina Becker, acting director of the Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences at the U.K.'s University of Edinburgh, who did not work on the paper, also critiqued the work. She commented in a statement: "The present paper is a review and reinterpretation of other studies without providing significant new experimental or epidemiological data.

Here are two other articles from The Daily Mail and Inverse.

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN IN IDENTITY & ORIENTATION

A new study (Nila, 2019) confirms the fraternal birth order (FBO) effect noted in homosexual males in an Indonesian population:

Abstract

Male homosexual preference (MHP) is an evolutionary enigma because it is partially heritable and imposes a fertility cost. In occidental societies, homosexual men are feminized at various levels and they have more older brothers than heterosexual men. To evaluate whether femininity and the fraternal birth order (FBO) effect are universal features of MHP or not, we collected original data from homosexual men, heterosexual men, and heterosexual women from Java (Indonesia). Facial photographs were used to test whether homosexual faces are feminized when compared with heterosexual ones. We found that faces manipulated to resemble the average face of homosexual men are perceived as facially feminized, suggesting that homosexual men are facially feminized compared to heterosexual men, although a higher facial femininity was not captured by morphological analyses. Then, family data were used to detect differences in siblings’ composition between homosexuals and heterosexuals. Homosexual men displayed a higher number of older brothers than heterosexual men, even when sibship size was controlled for, suggesting that the FBO effect exists in Indonesian populations. Independent of sexual orientation, men with older brothers seem more feminized than those without older brothers, consistent with the immune origin of the FBO effect. In conclusion, MHP in Indonesia is partially feminized and they have more older brothers. Such features are also associated with MHP in other cultural contexts, suggesting a cross-cultural effect of men homosexual preference. An evolutionary explanation is available for the feminizing effect, although the FBO effect remains unexplained even if proximal mechanisms start to be identified.

A new study (Rahman 2019) reviewing the populations of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people in various countries supports arguments for innate sexual orientation:

Abstract

The prevalence of women’s and men’s heterosexuality, bisexuality, and homosexuality was assessed in 28 nations using data from 191,088 participants from a 2005 BBC Internet survey. Sexual orientation was measured in terms of both self-reported sexual identity and self-reported degree of same-sex attraction. Multilevel modeling analyses revealed that nations’ degrees of gender equality, economic development, and individualism were not significantly associated with men’s or women’s sexual orientation rates across nations. These models controlled for individual-level covariates including age and education level, and nation-level covariates including religion and national sex ratios. Robustness checks included inspecting the confidence intervals for meaningful associations, and further analyses using complete-cases and summary scores of the national indices. These analyses produced the same non-significant results. The relatively stable rates of heterosexuality, bisexuality, and homosexuality observed across nations for both women and men suggest that non-social factors likely may underlie much variation in human sexual orientation. These results do not support frequently offered hypotheses that sexual orientation differences are related to gendered social norms across societies.

A quote from the article appears to show possible cultural influence on whether or not men will identify as gay and there is more variability in countries around women and bisexuality:

However, prevalence rates of men’s homosexual identity were more variable, across nations, than prevalence rates of women’s lesbian identity, p = .009. When sexual orientation was assessed in terms of participants’ same-sex attraction, women were more variable than men, across nations, in their prevalence of being moderately attracted to the same sex, p < .004. However, women and men did not differ significantly in the variability of their prevalence of not being attracted to the same sex and being predominantly attracted to the same sex (all ps > .05).

There appear to be more gay men than lesbians but more bisexual females than bisexual males:

However, a higher percent of men (4.9%) than women (2.1%) reported a homosexual identity, t(54) = 5.22, p < .001, whereas a lower percent of men (5.1%) than women (7.2%) reported a bisexual identity, t(54) = − 3.25, p = .002

In summary:

Finally, the relatively small cross-nation SDs reported in Table 4—particularly for prevalence rates for homosexual identities and predominant same-sex attractions—suggest substantial consistency across nations. Thus, despite the existence of variations across nations, sexual orientation rates were nonetheless relatively stable across nations.

A study on feminine Samoan males (called fa ‘afafina) reveals men who have sex with feminine (intact) males display a variety of orientation patterns from bisexual to primarily homosexual or heterosexual. This shows that these men are a diverse group. Ray Blanchard, a gender dysphoria expert and psychologist, coined the term gynoandromorphalia for males who are interested in trans MtFs or cross-dressing males. But it appears this may be a diverse group:

Abstract

In Samoa, feminine natal males who possess male-typical genitalia are known locally as fa’afafine. Some Samoan men express sexual interest in fa’afafine, whereas others do not. To assess the sexual orientation of men who are sexually interested in fa’afafine, we collected sexual attraction ratings and viewing times of Samoan men’s and women’s faces. Study 1 (N = 130) focused on men who were insertive or versatile during anal sex with fa’afafine partners. These men were compared to each other, as well as to males (i.e., men and fa’afafine) who were exclusively sexually interested in either women or men. Study 2 (N = 180) compared men who had sex with fa’afafine and women; men who had sex with fa’afafine, women, and men; and men who had sex with fa’afafine and men. These men were compared to each other, as well as to males who were exclusively sexually interested in either women or men. These studies suggest that men who have sex with fa’afafine are a heterogeneous group. A small portion of the men who are sexually interested in fa’afafine shows a relatively bisexual pattern of sexual attraction ratings and viewing times, namely men who have sex with fa’afafine, men, and women. In contrast, a larger number of men who were sexually interested in fa’afafine responded in a manner similar to men who were exclusively sexually interested in either women or men. The present research suggests that additional insights into male sexual orientation can be garnered by focusing on how sexuality is expressed in non-Western cultural contexts.

SOCIAL CONTAGION

GHQ reviews the large rise in young people identifying as trans in Topic 10 and Topic 11. A parent group called the Kelsey Coalition made a post reviewing some more recent statistics concerning the large increases of trans-identification in teenagers:

-In Oregon, 6% of 8th graders and 5.5% of 11th graders identify as transgender or non-binary. 2019 Oregon Health Teens Survey. 

-In Hawaii, over 3% of over 38,000 public high school students surveyed identify as transgender. Hawaii Sexual and Gender Minority Health Report (2018):

-2% of Minnesota 8th grade girls identify as transgender, while an additional 3% were not sure. Minnesota 2019 Student Survey

-Among Wisconsin high school students, 1% identified as non-binary, 1% as gender fluid, 1% as transgender, and 2% were not sure. Dane County, Wisconsin Youth Assessment Survey, 9th-12th Grade Report (2018). Among Wisconsin middle school students, 2% identify as non-binary, 1% as transgender, and 3% were nv County, Wisconsin Youth Assessment Survey, 7th-8th Grade Report (2018).

-Surveys of Maine high school students found 1.5% identify as transgender and 1.6% of students were unsure of their gender identification. Maine Integrated Youth Health Survey (2017)

This paper reviews the data indicating a major increase in trans-identified young people in Nordic countries:

Abstract

Purpose: To explore whether the increase observed in referrals to child and adolescent gender identity services (GIDSs) has been similar in four Nordic countries and in the UK.

Materials and methods: Numbers of referrals per year in 2011–2017 were obtained from all GIDS in Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the UK and related to population aged <18.

Results: A similar pattern of increase in referral rates was observed across countries, resulting in comparable population adjusted rates in 2017. In children, male:female birth sex ratio was even; in adolescents, a preponderance of females (birth sex) was observed, particularly in Finland.

Conclusions: The demand for GIDSs has evolved similarly across Nordic countries and the UK. The reasons for the increase are not known but increased awareness of gender identity issues, service availability, destigmatization as well as social and media influences may play a role.

Body dysmorphia around gender isn’t the only body dysmorphia increasing rapidly. More you females are seeking labiaplasty surgery:

Dr Naomi Crouch, a leading adolescent gynaecologist, said she was concerned GPs were referring rising numbers of young girls who wanted an operation.

Labiaplasty, as the surgery is known, involves the lips of the vagina being shortened or reshaped.

The NHS says it should not be carried out on girls before they turn 18.

In 2015-16, more than 200 girls under 18 had labiaplasty on the NHS. More than 150 of the girls were under 15…

Anna - not her real name - considered having labiaplasty from the age of 14.

"I just picked up from somewhere that it wasn't neat enough or tidy enough and I think I wanted it to be smaller.

"People around me were watching porn and I just had this idea that it should be symmetrical and not sticking out.

"I thought that was what everyone else looked like, because I hadn't seen any normal everyday [images] before then.

"I remember thinking, 'If there's surgery for it, then clearly I'm not the only one who wants this done, and maybe it won't be that big a deal.'."

REFERENCES

Gander, K. (2019, December 12). Transgender People Suffering From Gender Dyphoria May Have Key Brain Differences, Scientist Says. Newsweek. Retrieved from https://www.newsweek.com/transgender-people-gender-dysphoria-brain-differences-scientist-1475013

Kaitiala, R, Bergman, H., Carmichael, P., de Graaf, N., Rischel, K., Frisen, L. (2019). Time trends in referrals to child and adolescent gender identity services: a study in four Nordic countries and in the UK.

Mackenzie, J. (2017, July 3). Vagina surgery 'sought by girls as young as nine.' BBC. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/health-40410459

Nila, S., Crochet, P., Barthes, J., Rianti, P., Juliandi, B., Suryobroto, B., Raymond, M. (2019). Male Homosexual Preference: Femininity and the Older Brother Effect in Indonesia. Evolutionary Psychology. doi.org/10.1177/1474704919880701

Petterson, J. L., Dixson, B.J., Little, A. C. (2020). Heterogeneity in the Sexual Orientations of Men Who Have Sex with Fa’afafine in Samoa. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01646-6

Rahman, Q., Xu, Y., Lippa, R.A. et al. (2019). Prevalence of Sexual Orientation Across 28 Nations and Its Association with Gender Equality, Economic Development, and Individualism. Archives of Sex Behavior, 1-12 doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01590-0